Islam: Origins and Core Beliefs

Islam is one of the world’s major religions, founded in the 7th century CE by the Prophet Muhammad in Arabia. The word Islam in Arabic literally means “surrender”—reflecting the central belief that a Muslim (the one who submits) fully accepts and surrenders to the will of Allah (God).

In Islamic belief, Allah is the one and only God—the Creator, Sustainer, and Restorer of the universe. His divine will is revealed in the Qur’an (often spelled Koran in English), the holy scripture of Islam, delivered to humanity through the Prophet Muhammad.

Muslims believe Muhammad is the final messenger in a long line of prophets, which includes Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Solomon, and Jesus. His mission is seen as both the fulfillment and completion of earlier revelations, providing the ultimate and final guidance for humanity.

Spread of Islam and Global Community

With its unwavering emphasis on monotheism and adherence to core religious practices, the message of Islam—first taught by the Prophet Muhammad to a small group of followers—spread rapidly across regions. Within a few centuries, Islam reached the Middle East, North Africa, Europe, the Indian subcontinent, the Malay Peninsula, and even China.

By the early 21st century, Islam had grown to become the world’s second-largest religion, with over 1.5 billion Muslims worldwide. Despite the rise of various sects and schools of thought, all Muslims remain united by the same foundational beliefs and a shared sense of belonging to the ummah—the global Muslim community.

This article focuses on the core beliefs and practices of Islam, as well as the relationship between religion and society in the Islamic world. For a deeper look into the history of the diverse civilizations that embraced Islam, see the article on the Islamic world.

The Foundations of Islam: The Legacy of Prophet Muhammad

From its earliest days, Islam was built upon a deep sense of brotherhood and a strong bond of faith that Prophet Muhammad instilled in his followers. This solidarity was strengthened through their shared experiences of persecution in Mecca, shaping a close-knit community grounded in the principles of the Qur’anic revelation and the socioeconomic values embedded in Islamic practices.

In 622 CE, Muhammad’s migration (Hijrah) to Medina marked a turning point. His message was soon embraced, leading to the formation of the first Islamic community-state. During this formative period, Islam developed its unique ethos as both a spiritual faith and a socio-political system. Unlike many religions that separated the sacred from the secular, Islam sought to integrate the two—regulating not only an individual’s relationship with God (Allah) but also shaping human interactions and community life through Islamic law, governance, and institutions.

It was only in the 20th century that certain Muslim thinkers, and reforms in places such as Turkey, formally distinguished between the religious (private) and the secular (public) spheres.

This dual religious and social nature of Islam played a crucial role in its early expansion. Framed as a divinely guided community with a mission to establish justice and uphold its values through jihad—best understood as “striving” or “struggle” (often misinterpreted as solely “holy war”)—Islam spread with remarkable speed.

Within just a century after Muhammad’s death in 632 CE, Muslim rule extended across vast regions—from Spain in the west to Central Asia and India in the east—laying the foundation of a powerful Arab-Muslim empire that would leave an enduring mark on world history.

The Expansion of Islam: Conquests, Trade, and Sufi Missionaries

The period of early Islamic conquests and empire-building marked the first major phase in the religion’s global spread. Central to this expansion was Islam’s egalitarian message within the community of believers, combined with an official system of religious hierarchy that governed its relationship with non-Muslims.

Jews and Christians, recognized as “People of the Book” (Ahl al-Kitab) due to their scriptures, were granted religious autonomy under Muslim rule. In return, they were required to pay a special per capita tax known as the jizyah. By contrast, pagans were faced with conversion or execution. Over time, this protected status was also extended in certain regions to Zoroastrians and Hindus. However, many from these communities eventually embraced Islam—often to avoid the social and economic burdens of the jizyah system.

Beyond political and military conquests, the Sufi mystics played a defining role in Islam’s global reach. From the 12th century onward, Sufi missionaries spread the faith across India, Central Asia, Anatolia (Turkey), and sub-Saharan Africa, winning converts through their spiritual practices, emphasis on personal devotion, and community engagement.

Another crucial driver of Islam’s expansion was trade. Muslim merchants carried both goods and faith across far-reaching networks, introducing Islam to the eastern coast of India, South India, and eventually Indonesia, Malaya, and China. In fact, Islam arrived in Indonesia by the 14th century, largely through commerce and Sufi influence, just before the region fell under Dutch colonial rule.

Together, jihad, Sufi missionary activity, and trade networks made Islam one of the most widely practiced religions in the world, leaving a lasting imprint on diverse cultures and societies.

Unity and Diversity in the Islamic Community (Ummah)

Islam today is practiced by more than 1.5 billion people worldwide, representing a vast diversity of races, languages, and cultures. Despite these internal differences, Muslims share a common faith and a strong sense of belonging to the global community known as the Ummah.

Interestingly, rather than being weakened by the decline of Muslim political power during the colonial period of the 19th and 20th centuries, the idea of the Ummah actually grew stronger. Islam became a source of resilience and unity for Muslim populations struggling against Western colonialism, inspiring movements for political freedom in the mid-20th century. This religious solidarity has continued to shape the political and cultural identity of Muslim-majority societies today.

---

Sources of Islamic Belief and Law

Islamic thought and practice are grounded in four primary sources, known in Arabic as uṣūl (foundations):

1. The Qur’an – The holy book of Islam, believed to be the word of God (Allah) as revealed to Prophet Muhammad.
2. The Sunnah (Traditions) – The recorded sayings, actions, and approvals of Prophet Muhammad, which serve as a practical example of how to live in accordance with Islamic teachings.
3. Ijmāʿ (Consensus) – The agreement of Muslim scholars and the community on religious and legal matters, serving as a source of authority when direct guidance from the Qur’an or Sunnah is not available.
4. Ijtihād (Independent Reasoning) – The use of individual judgment and intellectual effort to interpret Islamic law and address new situations.

Together, these foundations provide the framework for Islamic law (Sharia) and shape the religion’s doctrinal, social, and legal principles across diverse Muslim societies.

The Qur’an: The Foundation of Islamic Teachings

The Qur’an (literally “reading” or “recitation”) is regarded by Muslims as the verbatim word of God (Allah), revealed to the Prophet Muhammad through the archangel Gabriel. It is divided into 114 suras (chapters) of varying lengths and serves as the primary source of Islamic faith and practice.

• The Meccan suras, revealed during the early years of Muhammad’s mission, focus on ethical guidance, spiritual reflection, and the Day of Judgment.
• The Medinan suras, revealed later after the migration to Medina, emphasize social laws, community organization, and political-moral principles for building and governing society.

---

The Sunnah and Hadith: The Prophet’s Example

The Sunnah (meaning “a well-trodden path”) originally referred to the tribal customs and traditions of pre-Islamic Arabia. In Islam, it came to signify the example of the Prophet Muhammad, preserved in his words, actions, and approvals.

These are recorded in the Hadith (literally “report”), which document the Prophet’s sayings and deeds. By the 9th century CE (3rd century AH), six Hadith collections were compiled and recognized as authoritative by the Sunni majority. Meanwhile, the Shiʿa community preserved their own Hadith traditions in four canonical collections.

The Hadith, alongside the Qur’an, remain essential to Islamic law (Sharia), guiding Muslims in both faith and daily practice.

---

Ijma (Consensus): A Source of Stability in Islamic Law

The doctrine of Ijma (consensus) was introduced in the 8th century CE (2nd century AH) to unify and standardize Islamic law, ensuring consistency across diverse regions and schools of thought.

Although originally meant as a consensus among scholars, it developed into a broader principle of authority and stability. By the 9th century CE (3rd century AH), matters on which consensus had been reached were considered final and beyond further debate.

In practice, the authority of the Qur’an, Sunnah, and Hadith all rests on the acceptance of the Muslim community (Ummah) through Ijma, which has acted as a cornerstone of Islamic legal and theological thought.

Ijtihad: Independent Reasoning in Islamic Law

Ijtihad (literally “to strive” or “to exert effort”) refers to the process of independent reasoning used by Muslim scholars to find legal or doctrinal solutions to new issues not explicitly addressed in the Qur’an or Hadith.

• In the early centuries of Islam, Ijtihad often took the form of individual opinion (ra’y), which led to a wide variety of interpretations and, at times, conflicting views.
• By the 8th century CE (2nd century AH), this practice was formalized into Qiyas (analogical reasoning), a method of applying principles found in the Qur’an and Hadith to new circumstances.

The “Closing” of Ijtihad in Sunni Islam

Over time, the doctrine of Ijma (consensus), combined with the acceptance of a fixed body of Hadith, led to what scholars call the “closing of the gate of Ijtihad” in Sunni Islam. This meant that Sunni jurists largely limited themselves to interpreting within established frameworks rather than introducing new independent reasoning.

By contrast, Shia Islam continued to uphold Ijtihad as a central principle, allowing its scholars more flexibility in adapting Islamic law to changing circumstances.

Revival of Ijtihad in Islamic Thought

Despite its decline in Sunni tradition, some influential scholars—such as al-Ghazali (11th–12th century)—asserted the right to practice Ijtihad. Later, during the 18th–20th centuries, Islamic reform movements, influenced by modern challenges and global change, revived the principle of Ijtihad as a way to reinterpret Islamic law and thought for contemporary society.

Doctrines of the Qur’an: The Concept of God in Islam

The Qur’an presents a doctrine of God that is firmly and uncompromisingly monotheistic. Known in Islamic theology as Tawhid (the oneness of God), this belief affirms that:

• God is One and Unique – He has no partners, equals, or offspring.
• Trinitarianism (the Christian concept of God as three persons in one) is explicitly rejected.
• No intermediaries exist between God and His creation. With the divine command “Be”, He alone brings all things into existence.

Attributes of God in the Qur’an

The Qur’an describes God as:

• The Sole Creator and Sustainer – Every element of the universe testifies to His unity and sovereignty.
• Just – His justice ensures perfect balance and order in creation.
• Merciful – His mercy is boundless, encompassing everything.
• Near to Humanity – God is portrayed as closer than one’s own jugular vein, always responsive to prayers and calls for help.
• Guide of Humanity – Above all, He leads people to the “straight path” (al-sirat al-mustaqim).

Contrast with Pagan Beliefs

This view of God directly countered the pre-Islamic Arab concept of a blind, unfeeling fate controlling human destiny. Instead, the Qur’an introduced a powerful yet compassionate and provident God, whose mercy and guidance define human existence.

To affirm Tawhid, the Qur’an strictly condemned idolatry, rejecting all false gods and divinities once worshipped in Arabia’s sanctuaries (harams), including the Kaaba in Mecca, which Islam reestablished as the holiest site dedicated to the worship of the one true God.

Doctrines of the Qur’an: The Universe

The Qur’an frequently points to the order and harmony of the universe as evidence of the oneness of God (Tawhid). Creation is not random or chaotic—every part of nature operates within a precise design that reflects divine wisdom.

Order and Design in Creation

• The Qur’an teaches that there are no gaps, flaws, or dislocations in nature.
• Every created thing is given a defined nature that determines how it functions and fits into the greater whole.
• This natural order shows that creation is both autonomous—with its own inherent laws of behavior—yet never autocratic, since these laws are set and limited by God.

The Concept of Measure

One of the most powerful themes in Qur’anic cosmology is the idea of measure (qadar). God declares: “Everything We created is according to a measure.”

• Every creature and phenomenon is limited and dependent on God.
• Only God is unlimited, self-sufficient, and sovereign, reigning over the heavens and the earth without challenge.

Islamic View of the Universe

In Islamic theology, the universe is a sign (ayah) pointing back to the Creator. Its balance and precision confirm that:

Human beings are invited to reflect on the cosmos as a way of deepening their faith in God’s unity.

God alone sustains creation.

Order in nature reflects divine justice and mercy.

Doctrines of the Qur’an: Humanity

According to the Qur’an, God created two distinct yet parallel beings: humans, formed from clay, and jinn, created from fire. While the Qur’an provides only limited details about the jinn—acknowledging their reason, responsibility, and greater tendency toward evil—it places central focus on humanity, presenting itself as divine guidance for all mankind.

The Creation of Humanity and the Fall of Adam

• The Qur’an affirms the story of Adam’s disobedience, as also found in Judaism and Christianity, but emphasizes that God forgave Adam.
• Unlike the Christian concept of original sin, Islam views Adam’s mistake as a personal act, not one inherited by all humanity.
• In the creation narrative, Iblīs (Satan) opposed God’s plan, claiming that humans would spread corruption on earth. Yet Adam’s superior knowledge proved his worth, establishing humanity’s honored status.

Humanity’s Noble Role

The Qur’an declares humans to be the noblest of creation—the beings who accepted the divine trust (amanah) that all other creatures declined.

• Humanity is appointed as God’s vice-regent (khalīfah) on earth, entrusted with stewardship and moral responsibility.
• All of nature has been made subservient to humankind, highlighting the purposeful design of creation.
• The Qur’an reminds believers that humans were not created in vain, but to serve and obey God’s will.

Human Nature: Strengths and Weaknesses

Despite this exalted position, the Qur’an describes human beings as frail, fallible, and prone to arrogance.

• While the rest of creation acknowledges its limits, humans possess freedom of choice, which can lead to rebellion and pride.
• Pride (kibr) is considered the greatest spiritual danger, as it leads to shirk (associating partners with God) by denying human dependence on the Creator.
• True faith (īmān) lies in recognizing divine unity and submitting in Islam (surrender) to God’s will.

Doctrines of the Qur’an: Satan, Sin, and Repentance

In the Qur’an, the struggle between humanity and Satan (Shayṭān or Iblīs) illustrates the ongoing challenge of maintaining Divine Unity (tawḥīd). Human beings, by nature, are prone to weakness, forgetfulness, and disobedience, often falling under Satan’s influence.

The Fall of Satan

The Qur’an teaches that Satan was once elevated in status but fell from divine grace after refusing God’s command to honor Adam. His act of defiance stemmed from pride (kibr)—the same sin he now incites within humanity. Since then, Satan’s mission has been to mislead people into error and rebellion against God. His deception will only end on the Last Day.

Humanity’s Response to Prophets

To safeguard humanity, God sent prophets and messengers throughout history, reminding people of divine unity and calling them back to God’s path. The universe itself is described as filled with signs of God’s existence, and even the human soul bears witness to His truth.

• 
  Yet, not all accepted this message. Some became disbelievers (kuffār)—a term meaning “those who conceal the blessings of God.”
• Persistent rejection of the truth leads to the sealing of the heart, a state where one becomes closed off from divine guidance.

Sin and the Path of Repentance

Despite human shortcomings, the Qur’an emphasizes that repentance (tawbah) is always possible.

• No matter how great the sin, God’s mercy remains boundless.
• A sincere return to God through repentance wipes away sins and restores a person to their original state of purity, as if beginning life anew.
• There is no point of no return in Islam—God is ever ready to forgive those who truly seek His pardon.

Prophecy in the Qur’an

In Islam, prophets (anbiyāʾ) are men specially chosen by God to deliver His message to humanity. Prophethood is indivisible: the Qur’an commands Muslims to recognize all prophets without discrimination, as they form a continuous chain of divine guidance.

Prophets and Their Miracles

While all prophets share the same mission of calling people to God’s oneness, the Qur’an highlights some for their steadfastness and patience under trial.

• Abraham was saved from the fire.
• Noah was rescued from the Flood.
• Moses was protected from Pharaoh.
• Jesus was born miraculously of the Virgin Mary and, according to Islamic belief, was saved from crucifixion.

These miracles serve as vindication of their mission and proof that God ultimately supports and protects His messengers.

Human, Not Divine

Prophets in Islam are human beings—not divine figures. They are the most perfect of humans, chosen as recipients of God’s revelation. Communication occurs through an angel messenger (often Gabriel), a voice, or direct inspiration.

Muhammad as the Final Prophet

The chain of prophecy reaches its culmination in Muhammad (peace be upon him), regarded as the last and greatest prophet. In him, the messages of all previous prophets are completed and perfected.

• The archangel Gabriel (Jibrīl) delivered the Qur’an directly to the Prophet’s heart.
• Early reports describe his revelations as accompanied by intense physical experiences, such as trance and heavy sweating, reflecting the profound weight of the message.
• The Qur’an itself acknowledges this gravity: “If We were to send down this Qur’an upon a mountain, you would see it humbled and split apart out of fear of God.”

The Divine Source of Revelation

The Qur’an firmly asserts that it is not a human composition but the eternal Word of God, a transcript of the heavenly “Mother Book” written on the “Preserved Tablet” (al-Lawḥ al-Maḥfūẓ). This conviction is central: if it were man-made, the Qur’an says, it would show flaws, contradictions, and uncertainty. Instead, it is delivered with unshakable certainty, leaving no room for doubt.

Eschatology in Islam: The Doctrine of the Last Day

In Islamic eschatology, the Last Day marks the end of the world and the beginning of eternal life. On this day, all the dead will be resurrected, and every individual will stand before God for judgment based on their deeds.

Judgment and Resurrection

The Qur’an primarily emphasizes personal accountability, yet it also describes the resurrection of entire communities, each judged according to “their own book.” Just as every individual has a limited lifespan, so too do nations, each with a fixed term. Ultimately, however, the final judgment is personal, determined by each individual’s actions.

To affirm the certainty of resurrection, the Qur’an offers two lines of reasoning:

• Moral: Not all justice is served in this life, so a final judgment is necessary for ultimate fairness.
• Physical: God, who is all-powerful, can destroy and recreate life at will, as all creation is subject to His limitless authority.

Intercession, Mercy, and Forgiveness

While some Islamic schools deny the idea of human intercession, most accept that it is possible. Above all, God’s mercy stands supreme—He may forgive whom He wills, even beyond human intercession.

Heaven and Hell in Islam

The Qur’an describes heaven (paradise) and hell (hellfire) as both spiritual and physical realities:

• The damned will burn in physical fire and also feel the torment “within their hearts.”
• The blessed will enjoy physical pleasures of paradise, but above all, the greatest reward will be experiencing God’s eternal pleasure.

This dual reality emphasizes that the afterlife is not only about bodily experience but also the deepest states of the soul.

Social Service in Islam: Charity, Brotherhood, and Moral Responsibility

In Islam, the purpose of human existence is to live in submission to the Divine Will. Unlike the rest of creation, which obeys God automatically, humans are granted free will—the choice to obey or disobey. This choice gives rise to a moral struggle (jihad al-nafs), the essence of human endeavor, where believers strive to overcome selfishness, pride, and greed while dedicating themselves to God’s commands.

Charity and Helping the Needy

At the heart of Islamic teaching is the principle of social service, which emphasizes charity, compassion, and alleviating human suffering. The Qur’an makes it clear that worship and prayer are incomplete without service to others. Acts such as zakat (obligatory charity) and sadaqah (voluntary charity) are not optional extras but central to faith.

The Qur’an criticizes human nature for being selfish:

“Man is by nature timid; when evil befalls him, he panics, but when good things come to him, he withholds them from others.”

Satan tempts people with the fear of poverty if they give, but God promises that charity brings prosperity, multiplying rewards beyond measure—far greater than the false gain of usury (riba), which Islam strictly forbids. Hoarding wealth while neglecting the rights of the poor is condemned as one of the root causes of societal decay, both in this world and the hereafter.

The Islamic Community and Brotherhood

Through this socio-economic doctrine, Islam establishes the concept of a closely knit community of believers (ummah). Muslims are described in the Qur’an as:

• “Brothers unto each other.”
• “The middle community bearing witness over humankind.”
• “The best community produced for humankind, enjoining good and forbidding evil.”

This brotherhood requires mutual support, cooperation, and giving sincere advice. Protecting the community’s interests is a religious duty, and those who deliberately harm it may face severe consequences. While persuasion and arbitration are preferred, Islam also allows force if absolutely necessary to safeguard the unity and integrity of the faithful.

Jihad, Social Justice, and Equality in Islam

The Concept of Jihad in Islam

In Islam, the mission of the Muslim community is to “enjoin good and forbid evil” so that corruption and injustice are removed from the earth. From this principle arises the doctrine of jihad.

For the early Muslim community, jihad was a basic religious duty. The lesser jihad (jihad al-asghar) refers to the use of armed struggle when absolutely necessary—not for conversion or worldly power, but to establish justice and protect society under the principles of Islam.

• Forced conversions are strictly forbidden. The Qur’an makes it clear that truth and falsehood are distinct, and each person has the freedom to choose.
• Wars for worldly gain, glory, or domination are prohibited.
• Conversions to Islam, historically, occurred as a by-product of just governance, not by force.

Later, with the establishment of the Muslim empire, leaders reinterpreted the doctrine of jihad in a defensive sense, focusing on protecting the community and maintaining order. However, groups like the Kharijites insisted on continuous warfare, a stance that ultimately led to their downfall during the 8th century.

Social Reforms of the Prophet Muhammad

Alongside spiritual guidance, Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) introduced sweeping reforms in Arabian society:

• Protection of the weak: Safeguarding the rights of the poor, orphans, women, and slaves.
• Slavery reform: Although slavery was not abolished, Islam strongly encouraged emancipation as a virtuous act.
  • Slaves could earn their freedom through contractual agreements.
  • A slave woman who bore a child by her master was automatically freed upon his death.
• Ban on female infanticide: Pre-Islamic practices of burying infant girls due to poverty or shame were strictly prohibited.

Equality and the Farewell Sermon

One of the most revolutionary reforms in Islam was the abolition of privileges based on race, tribe, or social status. In his famous Farewell Pilgrimage Address, the Prophet declared:

• All people are “equal children of Adam.”
• The only true measure of superiority in God’s eyes is piety and righteous deeds.

This declaration directly challenged pre-Islamic traditions:

The old concept of manliness and tribal pride was replaced with a new moral ideal: virtue, humility, and devotion to God.

Intertribal revenge (thaʾr)—where someone of equal status was killed instead of the actual murderer—was abolished.

The Five Pillars of Islam: The Shahadah (Profession of Faith)

Why the Shahadah Matters in Islam

The Five Pillars of Islam are the foundation of Muslim faith and practice. They represent the core acts of worship that shape a believer’s spiritual life and community identity. At the heart of these pillars is the shahadah, or profession of faith, which defines what it means to be Muslim.

After the passing of the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), the early Muslim community emphasized these essential practices to preserve the unity of faith. While some groups, such as the Kharijites, proposed jihad as a “sixth pillar,” mainstream Islam has always recognized five.

The First Pillar: The Shahadah (Declaration of Faith)

The shahadah is the simplest yet most profound statement in Islam:

“There is no deity but God, and Muhammad is the Messenger of God.”

Reciting this declaration sincerely, with belief in the heart, marks one’s entry into Islam and membership in the Muslim community. It is not only a statement of faith but also a lifelong commitment to live by Islamic principles.

Core Beliefs Within the Shahadah

The shahadah reflects the central tenets of Islamic belief:

• Belief in Angels – especially Gabriel (Jibril), the Angel of Revelation who delivered God’s message to the prophets.
• Belief in the Revealed Scriptures – including the Qur’an as the final revelation, along with earlier divine books given to Jews and Christians.
• Belief in the Prophets – a continuous line of messengers sent to guide humanity, including figures shared with Jewish and Christian traditions.
• Belief in the Last Day – the Day of Judgment, when all people will be held accountable for their deeds.

The Meaning of the Shahadah

The shahadah is far more than a verbal testimony. It embodies the Islamic worldview: affirming the oneness of God (tawhid), acknowledging divine revelation, following the guidance of prophets, and preparing for ultimate accountability in the afterlife.

In essence, it is the spiritual gateway to Islam, shaping not only belief but also action, morality, and the sense of belonging to the global Muslim community.

The Five Pillars of Islam: Salat (Prayer)

The Central Role of Prayer in Islam

The second pillar of Islam is salat, the ritual prayer performed five times daily. It is the most visible expression of a Muslim’s faith and discipline, structuring the believer’s entire day around remembrance of God.

These prayers may be offered individually when necessary, but the ideal is to pray in congregation, especially in the mosque.

The Five Daily Prayers

Muslims perform five obligatory prayers at specific times of the day:

1. Fajr – before sunrise.
2. Dhuhr – just after noon.
3. Asr – in the late afternoon.
4. Maghrib – immediately after sunset.
5. Isha – at night, before sleep.

Each prayer consists of a set number of rakʿahs (units of worship), which include standing, bowing, and prostrating while reciting verses from the Qur’an and phrases glorifying God.

At every change in posture, Muslims proclaim “Allahu Akbar” (“God is Greatest”).

Preparing for Prayer: Ablution (Wudu)

Before prayer, Muslims perform ablution (wudu), washing the hands, face, and feet as a symbol of spiritual purification.

The call to prayer (adhan) is made by the muezzin, traditionally from a mosque’s minaret, inviting the faithful to worship.

Congregational and Special Prayers

• Friday Prayer (Jumu’ah): Replaces the midday prayer on Fridays and includes a sermon (khuṭbah) that blends Qur’anic recitation with guidance on moral, social, and sometimes political issues. Friday sermons have historically influenced public opinion and community life.
• Night Prayer (Tahajjud): An optional but highly recommended prayer, especially during the last part of the night.
• Ramadan Prayers (Tarawih): Extra nightly prayers performed in congregation during the holy month of Ramadan.

Flexibility in Practice

In Islamic law, the five daily prayers are never waived, even for the sick, who may pray lying down if necessary. Travelers are permitted to shorten or combine prayers for convenience.

Despite this central role, many modern Muslims struggle with consistency, though Friday congregational prayers remain widely observed across the world.

The Deeper Meaning of Salat

Salat is more than ritual—it is a discipline of the soul, a way of keeping life centered on God. Each prayer is a pause from worldly concerns, a moment of humility, and a reminder of human dependence on the Creator.

The Five Pillars of Islam: Zakat (Almsgiving)

The Spiritual and Social Purpose of Zakat

The third pillar of Islam is zakāt, an obligatory act of almsgiving that signifies both purification and growth. By giving a portion of one’s wealth, Muslims purify their remaining wealth and help ensure social justice within the community.

Unlike voluntary charity (sadaqah), zakat is a mandatory duty for every eligible Muslim.

How Zakat Works

Zakat is an annual payment required on specific forms of wealth after one year of possession, including:

• Agricultural produce (grains, fruits).
• Livestock (such as cattle).
• Monetary wealth (cash, gold, silver).

Rates of Zakat

• 10% on crops watered naturally (by rain).
• 5% on crops irrigated artificially.
• 2.5% on cash, gold, silver, and other savings.

These rates are calculated after meeting the nisab (minimum threshold of wealth).

Uses of Zakat

The Qur’an specifies that zakat funds should be distributed for:

• Supporting the poor and needy.
• Freeing captives and ransoming prisoners.
• Relieving debtors.
• Paying collectors of zakat.
• Supporting jihad (interpreted broadly by many scholars to include education, healthcare, and community welfare).
• Assisting travelers in need.

Zakat thus serves as a mechanism for redistribution of wealth and strengthening social solidarity.

Zakat in History and Today

• In the early Islamic state, zakat was collected and distributed by the government.
• After the decline of centralized Muslim authority, paying zakat became more of a personal responsibility, dependent on individual conscience.
• Today, its enforcement varies: in countries like Saudi Arabia, zakat is regulated by Islamic law, while in many other nations, Muslims give it voluntarily through mosques, charities, or directly to the needy.

The Deeper Meaning of Zakat

Zakat is not just a financial duty—it is an act of worship and social responsibility. By sharing wealth, Muslims recognize that all provision comes from God, while building a compassionate and just society.

The Five Pillars of Islam: Sawm (Fasting in Ramadan)

Why Ramadan Is So Special

The fourth pillar of Islam is sawm, or fasting during the holy month of Ramadan—the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar. Ramadan is one of the holiest times of the year for Muslims because it is believed to be the month in which the Qur’an was first revealed to the Prophet Muhammad (Qur’an 2:185).

Muslims also honor the “Night of Power” (Laylat al-Qadr)—mentioned in the Qur’an (97:1)—which is believed to have occurred during the last ten nights of Ramadan, most commonly observed on the 27th night. This night is described as being better than a thousand months in spiritual value.

Rules of Fasting

Fasting in Ramadan begins at daybreak (fajr) and ends at sunset (maghrib). During the daylight hours, Muslims must refrain from:

• Eating and drinking.
• Smoking.
• Sexual activity.

The fast is broken at sunset with a meal called iftar, traditionally beginning with dates and water, followed by a larger meal. The pre-dawn meal before fasting begins is called suhoor.

Exemptions and Flexibility

Islam recognizes individual circumstances, so the Qur’an allows exceptions:

• Those who are sick or traveling may postpone their fast and make it up later.
• The elderly and the incurably ill are exempt but should feed one poor person for each missed day if they can afford it.
• Children are encouraged to fast gradually, but it only becomes obligatory once they reach maturity.

Spiritual and Social Purpose

Fasting is not only about abstaining from food and drink—it is a time of spiritual reflection, self-discipline, and heightened devotion to God. The fast is meant to:

• Encourage empathy for the poor and hungry.
• Purify the soul from selfish desires.
• Strengthen the sense of community as Muslims worldwide fast and break their fast together.

Ramadan Today

Beyond the physical fast, Ramadan is a month of:

• Increased prayers and Qur’an recitation.
• Special nightly prayers called Tarawih.
• Acts of charity and kindness.

For Muslims, Ramadan is both a personal spiritual journey and a collective celebration of faith, culminating in Eid al-Fitr, the festival marking the end of the month.

The Five Pillars of Islam: Hajj (Pilgrimage to Mecca)

What Is Hajj?

The fifth pillar of Islam is the Hajj, the annual pilgrimage to Mecca in Saudi Arabia. It is prescribed for every Muslim at least once in their lifetime, provided they are physically able and financially capable, and that their family will be cared for during their absence.

Hajj takes place during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah, the last month of the lunar calendar. It is a deeply spiritual journey that symbolizes submission to God and unity among Muslims worldwide.

Entering the State of Ihram

Before performing the rites, pilgrims enter a sacred state called ihram:

• Men wear two simple, seamless white garments.
• Women wear modest dress, usually plain and unadorned.
• Pilgrims must avoid cutting hair or nails, sexual relations, and certain other worldly activities.

Pilgrims coming from outside Mecca assume ihram at designated miqat points along their route.

Key Rituals of Hajj

The pilgrimage spans from the 8th to the 12th (or 13th) of Dhu al-Hijjah and includes several core rituals:

1. Tawaf (Circling the Kaaba) – Pilgrims walk seven times around the Kaʿbah, Islam’s holiest shrine, and may touch or kiss the Black Stone (Hajar al-Aswad).
2. Sa’i (Running between Safa and Marwah) – Pilgrims walk back and forth seven times between the two hills, recalling Hagar’s desperate search for water for her son Ishmael.
3. Journey to Mina – Pilgrims travel to Mina, a small valley outside Mecca, where they spend the night in prayer.
4. Day of Arafat – Considered the spiritual climax of Hajj. Pilgrims gather on the plains of Mount Arafat, listen to a sermon, and spend the afternoon in prayer and reflection.
5. Muzdalifah – After sunset, pilgrims travel to Muzdalifah, where they collect pebbles for the next day’s rite and spend the night under the open sky.
6. Stoning of the Devil (Ramy al-Jamarat) – Pilgrims throw pebbles at stone pillars symbolizing Satan’s temptation of Abraham.
7. Animal Sacrifice (Qurbani) – Marking Eid al-Adha, pilgrims sacrifice an animal (sheep, goat, or cow), commemorating Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son in obedience to God. The meat is distributed to the poor.
8. Final Tawaf (Tawaf al-Ifadah) – Pilgrims return to the Kaaba for another circumambulation before completing the rites.

Spiritual and Communal Meaning

Hajj is not just a physical journey—it is a spiritual cleansing and a reminder of:

• Equality: all pilgrims wear simple garments, erasing social and economic distinctions.
• Unity: millions of Muslims from diverse backgrounds worship together.
• Submission: the rituals honor the legacy of Prophet Abraham and his family’s devotion to God.

Modern Hajj

Today, the number of pilgrims has reached over two million annually, with Muslims from every corner of the globe participating. Because of logistics and safety, many countries regulate the number of pilgrims allowed each year.

In addition to Hajj, Muslims may also perform the ‘Umrah (lesser pilgrimage) at any time of the year. While highly meritorious, ‘Umrah does not substitute for the obligation of Hajj.

Sacred Places and Days in Islam

The Kaʿbah in Mecca – The Holiest Site

The most sacred place in Islam is the Kaʿbah, located within the Grand Mosque (al-Masjid al-Ḥarām) in Mecca, Saudi Arabia.

• Muslims believe the Kaʿbah was originally built by Prophet Abraham (Ibrāhīm) and his son Ishmael (Ismāʿīl) as the first house of worship dedicated to the One God.
• It is the qiblah—the direction toward which all Muslims pray.
• Beyond being a mosque, it represents a spiritual point where divine power and blessing touch the earth directly.
• It is the focal point of the annual Hajj pilgrimage, attracting millions of Muslims from across the globe.

The Prophet’s Mosque in Medina

The second holiest site is the Prophet’s Mosque (al-Masjid al-Nabawī) in Medina, Saudi Arabia.

• Built by the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), it contains his burial place, along with those of his closest companions Abu Bakr and ʿUmar.
• For Muslims, visiting Medina after the Hajj is considered a blessing, though not obligatory.
• The mosque stands as a center of learning, devotion, and reverence.

Jerusalem – The First Qiblah and the Miʿrāj

The third most sacred city in Islam is Jerusalem.

• It was the first qiblah (direction of prayer) before it was changed to Mecca.
• According to Islamic tradition, it is from Jerusalem that the Prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven during the Night Journey (al-Isrāʾ wa al-Miʿrāj).
• The al-Aqṣā Mosque and the Dome of the Rock remain deeply venerated sites.

Shiʿah Sacred Sites

In addition to the three universally recognized sites, Shiʿah Muslims hold particular reverence for other places tied to the memory of the Prophet’s family (Ahl al-Bayt):

• Karbala, Iraq – The site of the martyrdom of Imam Ḥusayn, grandson of the Prophet Muhammad. It is one of the most important pilgrimage destinations for Shiʿah Muslims, especially during ʿĀshūrāʾ.
• Mashhad, Iran – The burial place of Imam ʿAlī al-Riḍā, the eighth Shiʿi Imam, which draws millions of pilgrims annually.

Sacred Days in Islam

Beyond sacred spaces, Islam also sanctifies certain days and times:

For Shiʿah Muslims, ʿĀshūrāʾ is especially sacred, marking the martyrdom of Imam Ḥusayn at Karbala.

Friday (Jumuʿah) – The weekly congregational day of prayer.

The Month of Ramadan – A holy month of fasting, prayer, and reflection, culminating in Laylat al-Qadr (the Night of Power).

ʿĪd al-Fiṭr – Celebrated at the end of Ramadan, marking spiritual renewal.

ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā – Coinciding with the Hajj, commemorating Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son in obedience to God.

Shrines of Sufi Saints

Centers of Reverence and Pilgrimage

For the Muslim masses across the centuries, the shrines of Sufi saints have been important places of reverence, devotion, and pilgrimage.

• These shrines are seen as sites where the spiritual presence (barakah) of the saint continues to bless visitors.
• Pilgrims come to seek guidance, healing, and intercession, often tying their devotion to deep-rooted cultural and local traditions.

One of the most prominent examples is the tomb of ʿAbd al-Qādir al-Jīlānī in Baghdad. Revered as one of the greatest Sufi saints of all time, his shrine attracts pilgrims from across the Muslim world every year.

Transition from Private to State Control

Historically, Sufi shrines were often managed privately by descendants of the saint, local communities, or religious foundations. However, by the late 20th century, a significant shift occurred:

• Governments in many Muslim-majority countries assumed control over the shrines.
• They came under the supervision of awqāf (religious endowment) departments, which handle finances, upkeep, and administration.
• The official caretaker of a shrine is typically known as a mutawallī.

This shift reflected broader political goals: integrating these influential religious centers into state structures, while also regulating their wealth and social influence.

The Turkish Case – Confiscation of Awqāf

In Turkey, the transformation was especially dramatic.

• Under the secularizing reforms of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (president, 1928–1938), all religious endowments, including those tied to Sufi shrines, were confiscated by the state.
• This was part of a wider policy to diminish the political and economic power of religious institutions and align the country with a modern, secular identity.

The Mosque in Islam

Center of Religious and Community Life

The mosque (masjid) is the central institution of Muslim religious life. From the earliest days of Islam, beginning with the Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) and the Rightly Guided Caliphs, the mosque was not only a place of worship but also the hub of community life—serving spiritual, educational, social, and even political functions.

Even today, in many parts of the Muslim world, the mosque remains the heart of daily and communal religious practice.

Roles and Functions within the Mosque

• Small Mosques: Typically supervised by the imam, who leads the five daily prayers. In some cases, a muezzin is also appointed to call the adhan (call to prayer).
• Large Mosques: Especially those that host Friday prayers (Jumuʿah), often have a designated khaṭīb, responsible for delivering the Friday sermon (khuṭbah).
• Educational Centers: Historically, many larger mosques also functioned as religious schools (madrasahs) and centers of higher Islamic learning, teaching Qurʾān, Hadith, jurisprudence, and other sciences.

Mosques in the Modern Era

• In the early 21st century, in most Muslim-majority countries, mosque officials—imams, khaṭībs, and administrators—are officially appointed and regulated by the government.
• In some nations, such as Pakistan, many mosques remain community-run and funded by local donations. However, larger and historically significant mosques are increasingly placed under the supervision of state awqāf departments (religious endowment authorities).

1. Sacred Days and Festivals

• ʿĪd al-Fiṭr: Celebrated right after Ramadan; literally “Festival of Breaking the Fast.”
• ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā: Comes after the pilgrimage (ḥajj); marked by ritual sacrifice.
• Holy Nights:
  • Laylat al-Qadr (Night of Power, in Ramadan)
  • Isrāʾ and Miʿrāj (Prophet’s Night Journey and Ascension)
  • ʿĀshūrāʾ (especially important among Shiʿa, commemorating the martyrdom of Ḥusayn at Karbalāʾ).

---

2. Rise of Islamic Thought (ʿIlm al-Kalām)

• Emerged in the 7th–8th century as rational theology to defend Islamic beliefs.
• Main debates: God’s attributes, human free will, predestination, meaning of faith and works.

---

3. Influence of Foreign Traditions

• Through translation movements, Islamic thought absorbed ideas from Greek, Syriac, Persian, and Indian philosophy.
• Thinkers like al-Ghazālī worked to reconcile philosophy with religious orthodoxy.

---

4. Major Sects and Schools

• Khawārij (Kharijites): Very strict; declared Muslims committing major sins as unbelievers; slogan “No judgment but God’s.”
• Muʿtazilites: Rationalist; emphasized human free will and divine justice; argued the Qurʾān was “created.”
• Ahl al-Sunna (Sunnis): Response to Muʿtazila; balanced predestination and human choice; key schools: Ashʿarites and Māturīdīs.
• Shiʿa: Believed leadership (imamate) belongs to ʿAlī and his descendants; emphasized infallibility of imams and the awaited Mahdī.
• Ismāʿīlīs: A Shiʿi branch, strongly esoteric, developed philosophical works like the Epistles of the Brethren of Purity.

---

5. Later Movements

• Sufism: Focused on spirituality, inner purification, and love of God—contrasting with rigid legalism.
• Aḥmadiyya (19th century, India): Founded by Mīrzā Ghulām Aḥmad; he claimed to be a renewer (mujaddid), a reformer, and in some sense the “promised Messiah.”

Islamic Philosophy – An Overview

1. Background

• Islamic philosophy started from theological debates but was deeply shaped by the translation of Greek works (Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus) and sciences from Greek, Persian, and Indian sources.
• By the 9th century, Muslims had access to logic, metaphysics, ethics, politics, natural sciences, mathematics, music, and astronomy.
• Muslim thinkers didn’t just translate – they critiqued, developed, and integrated these ideas with Islamic concerns like revelation, prophecy, and divine law.

---

2. Key Eastern Philosophers

• Al-Kindī (9th century):
  • First Muslim philosopher.
  • Focused on natural philosophy and mathematics.
  • Distinguished between human knowledge (reason, science) and prophetic knowledge (direct divine revelation).
  • Set themes: God as first cause, creation vs. natural causation, immortality of the soul.
• Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (9th–10th century):
  • Radical thinker, physician, and skeptic of religious authority.
  • Believed in five eternal principles (God, Soul, Matter, Time, Space).
  • Rejected prophecy and organized religion as tools of manipulation.
  • Criticized by Ismāʿīlī theologians.
• Al-Fārābī (9th–10th century):
  • The “Second Teacher” (after Aristotle).
  • Organized sciences into a framework where political philosophy is central.
  • Compared prophet-lawgiver to philosopher-king.
  • Saw religion as a symbolic version of philosophical truth.
  • Stressed philosophers’ duty to engage with society (return to “the cave”).
• Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā, 10th–11th century):
  • Genius polymath.
  • Distinguished between essence and existence.
  • Developed proof of God as the Necessary Existent.
  • Defended immortality of the individual soul.
  • Integrated philosophy with Islamic beliefs on prophecy, revelation, and divine law.
  • Also connected philosophy with mysticism.

---

3. Key Western Philosophers (al-Andalus & North Africa)

• Ibn Bājjah (d. 1138):
  • Advocated solitary life for philosophers (“The Regimen of the Solitary”).
  • Saw philosophy as a private path to union with the Active Intellect.
  • Not concerned with reforming society.
• Ibn Ṭufayl (d. 1185):
  • Wrote Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān, a story about a child raised alone on an island.
  • Showed how reason alone can lead to knowledge of God.
  • Concluded that most people need religion in symbolic form.
• Averroës (Ibn Rushd, 12th century):
  • Famous commentator on Aristotle.
  • Argued that philosophy and religion are not in conflict.
  • Saw philosophy as a duty for the intellectual elite.
  • Criticized al-Ghazālī’s attack on philosophers (Incoherence of the Incoherence).
  • Distinguished between masses (who need literal religion), theologians (dialecticians), and philosophers (who use demonstration).

---

4. Later Developments – The “New Wisdom”

• Traditionalists (like Ibn Taymiyyah) attacked philosophy.
• But philosophy continued in a new form: Ḥikmah (Wisdom), mixing philosophy, theology, and mysticism.
• Claimed direct visions or illuminations as sources of truth.
• Parallel to late Greek philosophy (Plotinus, Neoplatonism).

The Evolution of Islamic Philosophy, Mysticism, and Social Principles

The Teachings of al-Suhrawardī – The “Wisdom of Illumination”

In the 12th century, al-Suhrawardī introduced what he called the “wisdom of illumination” (ḥikmat al-ishrāq). Unlike Avicenna and Aristotle, who relied on distinctions such as essence vs. existence or substance vs. accidents, Suhrawardī focused on the concepts of “light” and “darkness.” He explained existence as a continuum of graded lights, culminating in the “Light of Lights” (God)—self-sufficient, eternal, and the source of all being.

He introduced the idea of a “world of images” where partially purified souls exist after death, shaping realities through their imaginative powers. This doctrine—often described as “divine magic”—was used to explain miracles, dreams, and mystical experiences. His philosophy bridged Islamic thought with influences from Greek and Zoroastrian wisdom, promoting a vision where religions are seen as different manifestations of one universal truth.

Ibn al-ʿArabī – The Doctrine of “Unity of Being”

Ibn al-ʿArabī (1165–1240), one of the most influential Sufi mystics, expanded Islamic philosophy with his central idea of the “Unity of Being” (waḥdat al-wujūd). He taught that God is the absolute Truth (al-ḥaqq), while creation is His continuous self-manifestation. For Ibn al-ʿArabī, the cosmos is in constant renewal, animated by the “Breath of the Merciful.”

He introduced a primordial feminine principle as the bridge between God’s essence and the multiplicity of creation—an idea influenced by Greek thought but reshaped within Islamic mysticism. His metaphysics deeply shaped later philosophy, mysticism, and Shiʿi theology.

Twelver Shiʿism and the School of Isfahan

Following Ibn al-ʿArabī, Islamic philosophy flourished in Eastern Islam, particularly under the Safavid dynasty (1501–1732). The School of Isfahan, led by Mīr Dāmād and Mullā Ṣadrā, became a center of revival.

• Mīr Dāmād introduced the concept of “eternal origination” (ḥudūth dahrī), explaining creation in terms of different dimensions of time—everlastingness (sarmad), eternity (dahr), and temporal time (zamān).
• Mullā Ṣadrā transformed Islamic philosophy by asserting the primacy of existence over essence and the idea of substantial motion (al-ḥarakah al-jawhariyyah). He taught that all of nature is in constant flux, renewing itself every instant, moving toward perfection and higher levels of being.

This fusion of Aristotelian, Illuminationist, and mystical ideas made Mullā Ṣadrā one of the last great creative voices of Islamic philosophy.

The Decline and Challenge of Modernism

During the 18th and 19th centuries, the “new wisdom” remained influential but gradually stagnated. Thinkers such as Shāh Walī Allāh of Delhi upheld it, but modern reformers like Jamal al-Dīn al-Afghānī, Muhammad ʿAbduh, and Muhammad Iqbāl criticized it as overly mystical and detached from real social and political challenges.

The modernists attacked its lack of political philosophy and pushed for a return to earlier Islamic theology and philosophy (Muʿtazilah, Ashʿarism, and traditionalism). They promoted reason, human freedom, social reform, and scientific progress, seeing them as consistent with Islam’s original impulse.

Social and Ethical Principles in Islam

Family Life

Islam emphasizes marriage as the foundation of social life, discouraging celibacy and monasticism. While the Qurʾān permits polygamy (up to four wives), it stresses justice between spouses. Divorce was traditionally in the husband’s hands, though women could seek legal recourse.

Chastity (ʿiffah) is central in Islam. The Qurʾān prescribes strict punishments for adultery and false accusations, while describing marriage as a bond of “mutual love and mercy.” Inheritance laws strengthen family ties, though tribal traditions often restricted women’s rights to their lawful shares.

The Muslim State

Islam does not separate religion and politics; thus, the Muslim state is inherently religious. The Sunni caliph was not a pope-like figure but rather a political leader responsible for implementing Sharīʿah. Over time, power shifted from the caliph to local rulers (sultans and amīrs).

Sunni political thought leaned toward stability and obedience, even under unjust rulers, prioritizing unity over rebellion. However, rulers were always bound by Sharīʿah, which limited absolutism.

Education in Islam

Muslim education began with Qurʾān studies and Hadith but expanded with the introduction of Greek sciences. The clash between rationalist movements like the Muʿtazilah and orthodox scholars shaped Islamic intellectual history.

The madrasah system formalized religious education but excluded many secular sciences, which eventually limited creativity. Despite its rigid structure, the madrasah system provided unity across the Muslim world, producing a shared intellectual and legal culture.

Summary: Philosophy, Education, and Arts in Islam

1. Philosophy in Islam

• Influenced by Greek philosophy (Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus).
• Key figures: al-Kindī, al-Fārābī, Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā), Averroes (Ibn Rushd).
• Debates centered around reason vs. revelation.
• Al-Ghazālī criticized philosophers → emphasized theology (kalām).
• Ibn Rushd defended reason → influenced European scholasticism.
• Sufism (mysticism) added a spiritual/philosophical dimension.

2. Education

• Early learning centered on the mosque and Qur’an schools (kuttāb).
• Advanced studies in madrasahs (religious schools).
• Curriculum: Qur’an, ḥadīth, law (fiqh), theology, Arabic grammar, philosophy, science.
• Teachers often gained authority through knowledge and reputation, not degrees.

3. Diversity of Islamic Culture

• Islam spread across Asia, Africa, and Europe → cultural blending.
• Persian, Indian, and Greek traditions enriched Islamic civilization.
• Arabic remained the language of scholarship.

4. Visual Arts

• Islamic art avoids figurative depictions in religious contexts.
• Calligraphy, geometric patterns, and arabesque designs are central.
• Architecture: mosques, madrasahs, palaces → dome, minaret, courtyard style.
• Famous examples: Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem), Great Mosque of Córdoba, Taj Mahal.

5. Literature

• Qur’an = literary masterpiece, set the foundation for Arabic prose & poetry.
• Genres: poetry, adab (belles-lettres), historical chronicles, philosophy, Sufi writings.
• Persian contributions: Rūmī, Ḥāfiẓ, Ferdowsī, Saʿdī.
• Storytelling: The Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights).

6. Myths, Symbols, and Religious Life

• Night Journey (Isrāʾ and Miʿrāj) = central mystical story.
• Symbols: crescent moon and star, Kaʿbah, calligraphy of God’s name.
• Rituals and community revolve around mosques, festivals (ʿĪd), Sufi shrines.